“As if it is not enough I have been born in an Arab country to Arab parents with the name “Arab” wearing me from head to toes, I have been chosen to be a woman, guilty forever and ever with no ‘until proven innocent’ chance. No, friend. The ‘until proven innocent’ pipe dream remains forever a pipe dream I will continue to pay for for simply dreaming it.”
I have heard my grandpa repeating over and over again that the name “Rawan” is a magical name that fills the life of any one called “Rawan” with blessings. I grew up with this beautiful notion in my head to the extent that I liked my name even before knowing what it meant. I ached for people calling me “Rawan". I enjoyed the way it glided through their tongues waiting to meet my ears. When I knew that my name pointed at an Arab tribe, I was thrilled. I thought of my name as a blessing in disguise until I understood that the blessing in disguise is simply no more than a mere curse. Instead of being cursed with a period pain, I realized that my curse came in the form of a name and a gender or was that really a curse?
“What is your name, lady?” he asked me on the plane heading to the United States of America. I looked at him and simply said, “My name is Rawan. What is yours?” Even before he gave himself the chance to answer, he asked, “What does your name mean?” To that, I replied, “Rawan" is an Arabic tribe.” I saw the sneer on his face and adjusted myself in my seat waiting for what was coming my way. I did not wait long. Even before he asked, the question “Are you an Arab?” formulated in his eyes. “Yes, I am. Do you have a problem with that?” “Not at all,” he said and continued, “but it seems to me you do. Your name is Arabic and you are a woman.”
As the plane slithered through the sky, the conversation played itself in my head over and over again. In no way could I bring myself to blame the guy. After all, all he seemed to know was based on movies portraying Arabs as terrorists. I was sure of that. I wanted to scream, to tell him I am a woman who is proud to be both an Arab and a woman. Yet, what was there to be proud of? That question refused to leave my head.
The society we live in seems to be bathing in too many misconceptions. If our eastern society does not understand the true beauty behind the term “Arab” and the extraordinary essence of a “real Arab”, how would western societies understand it? If our eastern society is too afraid to regard a woman as an equal to a man, what kind of picture does that send the west? And more importantly, what picture does that send us, the inhabitants of the society?
In this paper, I plan to shed light on the meaning behind the terms “Arab” and “Woman”. Who is an Arab? How can one define an Arab living in the Arab world? Are woman who happen to be Arabs actually cursed? Where does their curse come from? Where do Arab women stand in terms of education and marriage in the Gulf Area, Lebanon, Kuwait, Bahrain, Somalia, Yemen, Egypt and other Arab countries?
I have heard my grandpa repeating over and over again that the name “Rawan” is a magical name that fills the life of any one called “Rawan” with blessings. I grew up with this beautiful notion in my head to the extent that I liked my name even before knowing what it meant. I ached for people calling me “Rawan". I enjoyed the way it glided through their tongues waiting to meet my ears. When I knew that my name pointed at an Arab tribe, I was thrilled. I thought of my name as a blessing in disguise until I understood that the blessing in disguise is simply no more than a mere curse. Instead of being cursed with a period pain, I realized that my curse came in the form of a name and a gender or was that really a curse?
“What is your name, lady?” he asked me on the plane heading to the United States of America. I looked at him and simply said, “My name is Rawan. What is yours?” Even before he gave himself the chance to answer, he asked, “What does your name mean?” To that, I replied, “Rawan" is an Arabic tribe.” I saw the sneer on his face and adjusted myself in my seat waiting for what was coming my way. I did not wait long. Even before he asked, the question “Are you an Arab?” formulated in his eyes. “Yes, I am. Do you have a problem with that?” “Not at all,” he said and continued, “but it seems to me you do. Your name is Arabic and you are a woman.”
As the plane slithered through the sky, the conversation played itself in my head over and over again. In no way could I bring myself to blame the guy. After all, all he seemed to know was based on movies portraying Arabs as terrorists. I was sure of that. I wanted to scream, to tell him I am a woman who is proud to be both an Arab and a woman. Yet, what was there to be proud of? That question refused to leave my head.
The society we live in seems to be bathing in too many misconceptions. If our eastern society does not understand the true beauty behind the term “Arab” and the extraordinary essence of a “real Arab”, how would western societies understand it? If our eastern society is too afraid to regard a woman as an equal to a man, what kind of picture does that send the west? And more importantly, what picture does that send us, the inhabitants of the society?
In this paper, I plan to shed light on the meaning behind the terms “Arab” and “Woman”. Who is an Arab? How can one define an Arab living in the Arab world? Are woman who happen to be Arabs actually cursed? Where does their curse come from? Where do Arab women stand in terms of education and marriage in the Gulf Area, Lebanon, Kuwait, Bahrain, Somalia, Yemen, Egypt and other Arab countries?
Introduction:
There are various theories that aid in the definition of an “Arab”. According to Patai (2003), for instance, in order to define an Arab, one has to think of three concentric circles. These are the following:
A- Language: An Arab is one who speaks Arabic.
B- Geography: All people who live in the Arab World are Arabs. Still, Geography alone does not suffice, because not all those who live in this area are Arabs. We have to keep in mind that these are also ethnic minorities.
C- Culture/religion: Here, the question that pops is: Is the Arab culture, in general, a Muslim culture?
This is the most inclusive of theories, but it does not mean it is the only one. There are others that come in handy when one is to define an “Arab”.
For example, according to historical documents, the Arabs originally lived in the Arabian Peninsula as tribes.
Ibn Khaldun, the first Arab Socio Historian, believes that we all come from the tribes of the Arab Peninsula and the Syrian Desert. It is said that the tribes left the Arab Peninsula when a dam broke and the water became scarce.
Thus, the term “Arab” referred to nomadic Bedouins or Arabian Peninsula dwellers. In the 7th century, the Arab armies became the carriers of Islam as well as traditions or values. When the Arabs came face to face with people of Arab stock and language, they got fused. They also came face to face with non-Arab stock people. Those people embraced the language, traditions and religion of the Arab conquerors.
Due to the Arab armies’ social and cultural integration, the term “Arab” started referring to a citizen of the “extensive Arab world”, the “great majority who racial descent, even when it was not pure Arab lineage, had become submerged in the tide of arabisation” with their language becoming Arabic.
The Arabic language came to be a source of fellow feeling between different Arab groups. Because of the Qur’an, the Arabic language turned into an interaction and communication mechanism and a vehicle of thought used in administration, government, schools and universities. The Arabs became so proud of their language, especially that it enriched their culture, helped in the study of historical ancestry and opened doors for understanding Arab themes. In other words, the Arabic language has provided Arabs with a cultural identity that sheds light on Arab cultural heritage. Here, it is crucial to point out the fact that even Arab history plays a role in bringing Arabs together. Famous people, such as Abu Bakr, Umar and Saladin are thought of by all Arabs as heroes who honor the term “Arab” and make Arabs proud. As we all know, pride is directly proportional to being an Arab.
Religion-wise, by stressing on topics such as family, relationships, heritage, charity, social obligations and such, Islam constituted the same norms and ways of behavior in Arab countries. Perhaps, that is one of the reasons the culture of different countries of the Arab world is the same. This is called “cultural affinity” and it is born out of the similarities Islam has produced in different Arab countries.
So, basically, there is a vague image of who an Arab is. However, as we have mentioned above, many theories appear. These include theories that indicate that Arabs were Nomadic Bedouins or dwellers of the Arabian Peninsula and extend to modern era theories that suggest that being an Arab has linguistic and political connotations.
All of this has brought about a certain Arab image. The image revolved around qualities of bravery, trustworthiness, faithfulness, mercy, kindness and, above all, manliness. This Arab image is viewed by the Arabs themselves.
I say this image is only viewed by the Arabs themselves, because if one is to test the Americans’ point of view, for example, as it comes to Arabs, one can perceive the differences in the interpretation. Instead of seeking to understand the Arabs, American colonies of long ago viewed Arabs as “pagans”. Also, in the sixteenth and seventeenth century, Arabs were labeled as “savage robbers”, people resorting to aggression, hostility, lack of order and ferociousness. So, they were simply considered people who have “lived outside of history” as it came to Americans. They have offered the world no input. In other words, whether or not the Arabs existed, it would have merely proved to be the same (Suleiman, 1988).
In 1974, and during a study that took place in the American high schools, Arabs were portrayed as “fanatics” and “infidels” who believe in a “false religion”. Also, Arabs were associated with oil. They were depicted as “vindictive”, “wild, barbaric and bloodthirsty” “madmen with little logic” (Suleiman, 1988).
Still, to add up to the matter, Americans tend to refer to the Arabs as “writing the same language” and “having the same religion-Islam” (Suleiman, 1988).
The image got even more distorted after the occurrences of September, 11 also pointed at as 9/11. A new adjective was added. Arabs started being referred to as “devious” (Hagelan, 1980)“terrorists”. Gradually, Arabs became considered a part of those “wrath should fall upon”.
Still, to be fair, this image is not the fault of the Americans alone. It is also that of the Arabs.
In other words, if one is to observe the Arab world which is made up of a group of countries and a Mediterranean ethos, it is easy to see that it does have what it takes to be a nation. However, it faces many problems that relate to its being a complementary, multiple, transitory and developing society.
A problem added to these problems points its fingers at the fact that the Arabs, in general, tend to live in the past with the Arab culture accepting all that has been handed down to it.
“Even God cannot change the past,” is one of the most famous adages repeated on the tongues of many of those Arabs who call themselves “Intellectuals”. Yet, there seems to be a conflict between what is repeated over and over again and what is actually done about it. If one wants to dissect this saying, a very simple conclusion can be reached. Once the past is rendered into no more than a past, even a miracle cannot do anything about it. After all, the only way to transform the past is to realize that one can do nothing about the past but it is in one’s hands to do everything about the future in an attempt to prevent the repetition of the past. However, this seems to be easier said than done. One wishes it had been the opposite, but reality is harsh and has the ability to bite one in the eye. Even though truth bit Arabs in their eyes too many times to count, they have chosen to ignore it, assuming that it was ordained in God’s plan for them to live in the past forever and ever. Perhaps that is one of the reasons Israel and America want to keep the Arabs in the past forever.
The Arabs simply love the past and all that has to do with the past. They are attached to it just like a baby is attached to his mother. They live in the past, discuss the past all the time and pretend they understand everything they need to understand about the past. They formulate hypotheses about the past and explain the past the way they like, repeating all the time that they have learnt everything they should learn from it.
According to Hisham Sharabi, the Arab society is “neo-patriarchal”. In other words, it is one “whose patriarchal structures have not been truly modernized, but only reshaped and preserved in ‘modernized’ forms” (as cited in Weitzman, 2005, p.3).
As it comes to Fatima Mernissi, this patriarchal structure has resulted in a “‘mutilated modernity’ – void of the great democratic advances deemed crucial to achieving genuine social transformation” (as cited in Weitzman, 2005, p.3).
The Arab world is actually engulfed with misconceptions. In the Arab world, there is a censorship on media and books. There are psychological distances between people. In addition to that, the educational setup is enclosed. Above all, there is a ruthless gender inequality ruling this world. If one is to dissect this gender disparity, one will notice that it is actually a war against women, the marginalized fraction.
Arab Women and Marriage
“A modern Muslim conservative interpretation of the alleged inferiority of woman’s nature run: The woman is afflicted with menstruation, childbirth, with pregnancy and delivery, with the raising of children … with a deficient constitution” (Guthrie 2001, p.187).
Arab women are despised for 2 reasons and by two separate worlds, one being the West and the other being the East.
In other words, the West loathes Arab women because they are “devious” Arabs (Suleiman, 1988) who were born from Arab parents. To the West, any woman wearing a veil is an Arab whose veil prevents from breathing in the air of freedom.
The East looks down on women because they are women, guilty forever with the crime of being women. As simply put.
In the 1980s, Halim Barakat listed five features that mirrored Arab women’s subordinate status. These are:
1- “Women are secluded and segregated, with the majority continuing to occupy the private domain of the household, and with public space reserved for males, and veiling (a sign of separation) still widespread.”
2- “The roles most available to women are those of daughter, sister, wife, mother, mother-in-law, etc – with few professional careers available. Women are relegated to marginality by the prevailing social, political and economic organization.”
3- “Personal status codes discriminate against women, particularly in such areas as marriage, divorce and inheritance. Among certain classes, ownership of property is almost exclusively confined to men.”
4- “Prevailing religious ideology considers women to be a source of evil, anarchy (fitna) and trickery or deception (kayd). The prevailing standard of morality stresses those values and norms associated with traditional ideas of femininity, motherhood, wifehood and sexuality.”
5- “Women may still be exposed to such practices as forced marriage, honor crimes, clitoridectomy” (Weitzman, 2005, pp. 2-3).
Girls were buried physically in the past. It was a disgrace for a woman to give birth to a girl. Still, physical burial is nothing like the emotional and psychological burial women are experiencing now.
Al-Ghazali, one of the distinguished philosophers of his time, once claimed that men were lucky to be men since that meant that they did not have to be involved in house chores. By house chores, of course, he was referring to “cooking, sweeping, cleaning utensils” and such. In other words, Al-Ghazali reflected the “urban bias of traditional Islamic culture” (Guthrie, 2001, p.11).
In Al-Ghazali’s own words, women were “capable of setting things to rights in the home” (Guthrie, 2001, p.11). This is how it all started in Arabic literature the role of which included portraying real life. Also, “portrayals of women in Arabic literature” provided a “barometer by which we can measure the status and role of Arab women in society” (Mikhail, 1980). Women were often regarded as the “playthings” of men. It is as if their roles stopped there.
Due to the patriarchal nature of the Arab society, women were not allowed to choose their marriage partners. They were even given to marriage between ages 10 and 12 (Guthrie, 1001, p.11). This brutal approach stole the women’s right to realize that they actually had rights (Guthrie, 2001, p.11).
During the middle ages, “honor” was one of the most important words ever invented. That is, honor was viewed as “the regulation of female sexuality”. A woman’s honor was her ticket to “worthiness”. Still, her worthiness consigned her to no more than a mere commodity (Guthrie, 2001, p. 12).
According to Shirin Shukri, honor (sharaf) is “what makes life worthwhile: shame is a living death not to be endured. Honor involves recognition, the openly acknowledged esteem of others which renders a person secure and important in his or her own eyes and in front of everyone else.” As it comes to her, it is the concept of honor that characterizes the roles of men and women, marks out every single matter or deal between them, authenticating them and embellishing them ineradicably (Shukri, 1996, p.1). To her, “Women in Jordan bear a special responsibility for family honor (ird), insofar as so long as a woman conforms to certain standards of modest feminine conduct her family’s status is maintained or even improved, whereas unwomanly conduct is a blot not just on her personal reputation but on the reputation of the whole family” (Shukri, 1996, p.2). In other words, if a woman behaves in a disrespectful way, no man will ask for her hand in marriage and if no man asks for her hand in marriage, she will tarnish the reputation of her family (Shukri, 1996, p.2).
Most Arab women, especially those who belong to lower socio economic status, have no right to choose their husbands. They have no right to fall in love or even to marry some one they choose to marry. To their families, love is a crime and marrying some one out of love is a sin. As a partner in marriage, the parents of the bride-to-be usually resort to choosing a first cousin, out of the notion that he will be the “most appropriate choice for perpetuating a family’s lineage”. Still, “although marriage to a first cousin is not perceived as incestuous in the Arab region, such unions can lead to congenital diseases in the offspring”, a fact uneducated parents ignore (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.11).
“Marriage for women was monogamous. Their spouses, however, were allowed serial marriage or concubines, and for many women the spectre of another wife must have loomed large.” Of course, if a man got himself another wife that meant that the “original” wife would have to endure emotional and psychological pressure, especially if the new wife lived in the same house (Guthrie, 2001, p.12).
“The singular mean age for marriage among Moroccan women who have no education is 17.8 years compared with 24.9 years for women with secondary-level educational attainment” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p. 11). Iraq has set the female’s minimum legal age of marriage at 18 (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.11).
In general, the more the age at first marriage increases, the more the woman decides to put off giving birth, choosing to stay in school longer (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.11).
“Recording 26 years, Tunisia represents the highest age for women, followed by Jordan, Lebanon and Qatar (25 years each). Countries posing the youngest ages at first marriage are Djibouti and Oman (19 years each), followed by Somalia, Mauritania, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and the Comoros (20 years each). Subregional averages show that the least developed countries, with a mean of 20.5 are the only category which lies below the regional mean of 22. Both the Gulf States and the diversified economies (23 each) scale slightly above, with the North Africa cluster trailing slightly behind (23.5 years)” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.11).
“Several countries register a very high percentage of currently married females in the lowest age bracket, 15-19 years: the former People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (49%); the former Yemen Arab Republic (39%); Oman (36%); and Mauritania (32%)” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, pp.11-12).
As it comes to F. Mernissi (Mernissi 1975, p.110) as cited in Shukri (1996, p.15), when a man and a woman get married, that means that the woman should be a faithful, compliant and dutiful wife. These are men’s expectations. However, a wife is not allowed to be expecting of faithfulness from her husband or even obedience. According to Mernissi (1975, p.110), Moroccan husbands, for instance, “owe no moral duties to their wives and the alleged ‘rights’ of women are in fact restrictions on their freedom” (as cited in Shukri, 1996, pp.15-16).
Shirine notes that the “mother-in-law” is one of the chief elements in a man and a woman’s marriage (Shukri, 1996, p.16). A mother-in-law usually has a lot to say about her daughter-in-law. She chooses her, orders her and does all she can in order to prevent the formulation of a love relationship between the married couple. “Men’s mothers act as moral watchdogs and often burden their daughters-in-law with a huge range of ethical demands, exhorting them to look forward to the future when, if they bear sons, they in turn will achieve seniority and status” (as cited in Shukri, 1996, p.16).
In some Arab countries, it is a disaster if the woman gives birth to a girl. Even now, in the 21st century, the man threatens his wife to give birth to a boy else he will divorce her, as if it is actually in her hands.
Divorce put women in the circle of those who are considered “socially outcast”. Men usually given themselves the right to divorce their wives in the case they were discovered to be barren or in the case they gave birth to girls, as we have already mentioned above. “Talaq al bid’a”, also known as “innovatory divorce”, is the divorce by which the man “repeats a repudiation statement three times before a witness” (as cited in Shukri, 1996, p.16). If the man decides to take his wife back, however, he can do so exactly 3 months after the divorce has taken place (as cited in Shukri, 1996, p.16).
A divorced woman is not respected. She is considered an outsider. Divorce becomes a label that seems to wear the woman from the time she is divorced until she is dead. Her children, in most cases, are taken away from her.
In spite of everything, according to the Imamiyyah, “if a man divorces his wife while he is sick she will inherit from him, irrespective of the divorce being irrevocable or revocable, on the realization of the following four conditions:
1- That the husband’s death occurs within a year of the date of divorce. Thus if he dies a year after the divorce, even if only by an hour, she will not inherit from him.
2- That she does not remarry before his death. If she does and he dies within a year of the divorce, she will not inherit.
3- That he does not recover from the illness during which he divorced her. Thus if he recovers and then dies within a year, she will not be entitled to inherit.
4- That the divorce does not take place at her request” (as cited in Shukri, 1996, p.167).
If a divorced woman manages to become independent financially and economically, she is doubted morally. In other words, the honor of her family depends on her own honor (as cited in Shukri, 1996, p. 163.
Arab Women and Education
Education is a weapon against illiteracy, poverty and diseases. This has been a fact no one has ever dared to argue against.
According to the exact words of Munir Bashshur (1980, p.67), “the subject of women in education is at once easy and difficult to discuss. It is an easy topic because all we have to do is find out where women stand presently in education: how their status compares with that of men, or how far they have improved in their educational chances over the years … But even before we entertain the situation, we can all agree that the conclusion is going to consist of one or two things: first, that the share of women in education has been improving over the years; and second, that this share is still less, generally, than that of men.” He continues, “It is not surprising that disadvantaged groups, no matter how we define these groups, receive smaller shares of whatever there is to be shared around” (Bashshur, 1980, p.68).
Even though the views towards educating a woman have changed, a large percentage of women in the Arab world are considered illiterate. Illiteracy, as a matter of fact, robs women of many chances. The more illiterate the woman is, the less her opportunity at proving herself is.
“A number of studies have focused on the lingering low levels of literacy among Arab women and the persisting gender gap in literacy rates. Some have explained the gender gap as partly owing to the historical disadvantage of a generation of older women, who had no access to education and partly to a lack of educational facilities for women in rural areas in poorer countries” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p. 71).
In the case of Yemen and Somalia, for instance, there is a primary school enrollment gender gap of 35 and 51 girls for every 100 boys respectively. In Comros and Djibouti, this gap covers around 60 girls for every 100 boys. Still, in the Gulf Area, there are 92 girls for every 100 boys, which is actually very high and more than excellent (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.73).
As it comes to “attainment rates at the primary level”, the best of these exist in countries such as Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Tunisia (attainment rate for girls is 23%). The poorest attainment rates are found in Egypt (3%), the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (4%) and Saudi Arabia (5%) (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.73).
Secondary school enrollment-wise, there are, on average, 74 girls for every 100 boys. “The regional mean of female first-level secondary school attainment stood at 11% of the female population aged 15 years and above in 1990, while 10% of that same population held a second-level secondary certificate” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.75).
College-wise, during the year 1990, 40% of the students enrolled in university or college were females. Here, the gender gap in enrollment demonstrates 80 females to every 100 males (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends Statistics and Indicators, p.77).
“Females’ share of tertiary enrollment is above the regional average, reaching as high as 72% in Qatar, 70% in the United Arab Emirates and 57% and 56% in Kuwait and Bahrain respectively” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends ,Statistics and Indicators, p.77).
Still, according to Patricia McGrath (1976), “Concrete obstacles working against female education exist, ranging from shortage of educational facilities; to the belief that boys should be educated first; to the notion that girls should not travel or live alone if educational facilities are not near; to the fact that girls are kept home to administer chores that are seen to be more appropriate for daughters to do rather than sons; to the belief that educating girls limits their chances in marriage; to the belief that girls should not be in contact with boys (gender segregation); to early marriage; to parents’ belief that any investment in a girls’ education will be lost to them, since the girl will eventually belong to her husband in her newly created family or even the family of her in-laws and will no longer be part of her parents’ family; to the belief that by education, women may become less submissive to the dictates of their male relatives (or spouses); to limited employment opportunities which lessen enthusiasm for (the already costly) education; to the educational system, curricula, textbooks, etc., which reinforce the stereotypes against women; to the future educational expectations for girls, which are generally limited since marriage is considered the ideal future” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.72).
Actually, what Patricia McGrath (1976) has noted says it all. When it comes to educating boys, any parent would go ahead and do it without a moment of hesitancy. However, educating a woman scares parents. In reality, it scares the society. If a woman is educated, this means that she is a danger to the man. As it comes to the society, an educated woman is a powerful enemy, because she can outperform men at any domain. That is, she can play their own game and even beat them at it. Parents seem to believe that an educated woman does not have to marry, because she has everything she wants. That is, she can spend on herself, open her own house and even start a business of her own.
Moreover, the more educated a woman is, the more aware she is of her rights, of the real meaning behind “right” and “wrong”. An educated woman is a powerful woman who can step above any blockage and even transcend above any complications.
Conclusion
Education is a weapon against illiteracy, poverty and diseases. This has been a fact no one has ever dared to argue against.
According to the exact words of Munir Bashshur (1980, p.67), “the subject of women in education is at once easy and difficult to discuss. It is an easy topic because all we have to do is find out where women stand presently in education: how their status compares with that of men, or how far they have improved in their educational chances over the years … But even before we entertain the situation, we can all agree that the conclusion is going to consist of one or two things: first, that the share of women in education has been improving over the years; and second, that this share is still less, generally, than that of men.” He continues, “It is not surprising that disadvantaged groups, no matter how we define these groups, receive smaller shares of whatever there is to be shared around” (Bashshur, 1980, p.68).
Even though the views towards educating a woman have changed, a large percentage of women in the Arab world are considered illiterate. Illiteracy, as a matter of fact, robs women of many chances. The more illiterate the woman is, the less her opportunity at proving herself is.
“A number of studies have focused on the lingering low levels of literacy among Arab women and the persisting gender gap in literacy rates. Some have explained the gender gap as partly owing to the historical disadvantage of a generation of older women, who had no access to education and partly to a lack of educational facilities for women in rural areas in poorer countries” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p. 71).
In the case of Yemen and Somalia, for instance, there is a primary school enrollment gender gap of 35 and 51 girls for every 100 boys respectively. In Comros and Djibouti, this gap covers around 60 girls for every 100 boys. Still, in the Gulf Area, there are 92 girls for every 100 boys, which is actually very high and more than excellent (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.73).
As it comes to “attainment rates at the primary level”, the best of these exist in countries such as Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Tunisia (attainment rate for girls is 23%). The poorest attainment rates are found in Egypt (3%), the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (4%) and Saudi Arabia (5%) (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.73).
Secondary school enrollment-wise, there are, on average, 74 girls for every 100 boys. “The regional mean of female first-level secondary school attainment stood at 11% of the female population aged 15 years and above in 1990, while 10% of that same population held a second-level secondary certificate” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.75).
College-wise, during the year 1990, 40% of the students enrolled in university or college were females. Here, the gender gap in enrollment demonstrates 80 females to every 100 males (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends Statistics and Indicators, p.77).
“Females’ share of tertiary enrollment is above the regional average, reaching as high as 72% in Qatar, 70% in the United Arab Emirates and 57% and 56% in Kuwait and Bahrain respectively” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends ,Statistics and Indicators, p.77).
Still, according to Patricia McGrath (1976), “Concrete obstacles working against female education exist, ranging from shortage of educational facilities; to the belief that boys should be educated first; to the notion that girls should not travel or live alone if educational facilities are not near; to the fact that girls are kept home to administer chores that are seen to be more appropriate for daughters to do rather than sons; to the belief that educating girls limits their chances in marriage; to the belief that girls should not be in contact with boys (gender segregation); to early marriage; to parents’ belief that any investment in a girls’ education will be lost to them, since the girl will eventually belong to her husband in her newly created family or even the family of her in-laws and will no longer be part of her parents’ family; to the belief that by education, women may become less submissive to the dictates of their male relatives (or spouses); to limited employment opportunities which lessen enthusiasm for (the already costly) education; to the educational system, curricula, textbooks, etc., which reinforce the stereotypes against women; to the future educational expectations for girls, which are generally limited since marriage is considered the ideal future” (as cited in Arab Women 1995 Trends, Statistics and Indicators, 1997, p.72).
Actually, what Patricia McGrath (1976) has noted says it all. When it comes to educating boys, any parent would go ahead and do it without a moment of hesitancy. However, educating a woman scares parents. In reality, it scares the society. If a woman is educated, this means that she is a danger to the man. As it comes to the society, an educated woman is a powerful enemy, because she can outperform men at any domain. That is, she can play their own game and even beat them at it. Parents seem to believe that an educated woman does not have to marry, because she has everything she wants. That is, she can spend on herself, open her own house and even start a business of her own.
Moreover, the more educated a woman is, the more aware she is of her rights, of the real meaning behind “right” and “wrong”. An educated woman is a powerful woman who can step above any blockage and even transcend above any complications.
Conclusion
“Talk to Arab women and you’ll quickly learn that the controversy over the Muslim veil that ranges endlessly in Europe is the least of their concerns. They face a daunting array of hardships, from spousal domination at home to gender discrimination in the workplace, and even if they happen to agree that the veil symbolizes their plight, they tend to dismiss criticism of it as a Western Attack on their culture” (“Women in the Arab World”).
An Arab Human Development Report released under the sponsorship of the United Nations Development Fund “debunks the Arab conspiracy theory that promoting women’s rights is part of a Western plot against Islam”. According to this report, “The rise of Arab women is in fact a prerequisite for an Arab renaissance and causally linked to the fate of the Arab world and its achievement of human development” (Women in the Arab World).
This report sheds light on the predicaments Arab women endure. Arab women are denied the right to have a proper education even though they see to best boys at school. It is a fact that Arab countries have “one of the highest rates of female illiteracy in the world”. If a family gives birth to a boy and a girl and has enough money to educate one of them only, it chooses the boy. This is due to the notion that a boy will grow up to be the “man of the house” who will bring in money and make his family proud while the woman is the “maid whose destiny ordained her to clean after him and raise his children without complaint”.
According to the famous writer Assia Djebar, “All our women are afraid… They who are so talkative, never speak of the fact that they are afraid. They are busy having child after child to stifle their fear” (Mikhail, 1980).
Assia says it all. Arab women are not actually cursed. They are simply afraid and feel restrained. They need to perceive how lucky they are because they are women who are born to be Arabs. Once they do, the curse they are permitting the society to surround themselves with will break and their real beauty will ensue.
Women have actually gone a long way. In Saudi Arabia, for instance, women are starting to leave their cocoons and raise their voices. In the Gulf Area, women are assuming high positions. Egypt even held the first Summit for Women. Where were we and where are we now? And the best is yet to come!
An Arab Human Development Report released under the sponsorship of the United Nations Development Fund “debunks the Arab conspiracy theory that promoting women’s rights is part of a Western plot against Islam”. According to this report, “The rise of Arab women is in fact a prerequisite for an Arab renaissance and causally linked to the fate of the Arab world and its achievement of human development” (Women in the Arab World).
This report sheds light on the predicaments Arab women endure. Arab women are denied the right to have a proper education even though they see to best boys at school. It is a fact that Arab countries have “one of the highest rates of female illiteracy in the world”. If a family gives birth to a boy and a girl and has enough money to educate one of them only, it chooses the boy. This is due to the notion that a boy will grow up to be the “man of the house” who will bring in money and make his family proud while the woman is the “maid whose destiny ordained her to clean after him and raise his children without complaint”.
According to the famous writer Assia Djebar, “All our women are afraid… They who are so talkative, never speak of the fact that they are afraid. They are busy having child after child to stifle their fear” (Mikhail, 1980).
Assia says it all. Arab women are not actually cursed. They are simply afraid and feel restrained. They need to perceive how lucky they are because they are women who are born to be Arabs. Once they do, the curse they are permitting the society to surround themselves with will break and their real beauty will ensue.
Women have actually gone a long way. In Saudi Arabia, for instance, women are starting to leave their cocoons and raise their voices. In the Gulf Area, women are assuming high positions. Egypt even held the first Summit for Women. Where were we and where are we now? And the best is yet to come!
A Final Thought
For ages, Arab women have been an inspiration. Examples of such women are Al-Khansa (Tumadir bint Amru al-Harith- bint al-Sharid), Nazik al-Mal’aika, Walladah bint al-Mustakfi, Therese Awwad, Fadwa Touqan (Mikhail, 1980), May Ziade, Om Kalthoum, Feiruz, Majida el Roumy, Layla Anwar, Julia Boutros and many others. These women wrote and sang, thus proving to themselves, to Arab women and to all women that they have a voice that can transcend above stereotypes and injustice. With a pen, Fadwa Touqan, for instance, wrote:
“Freedom
My Freedom
I shall carve the words in the
Earth
Chisel their sounds
Over every door in the Levant…
Below the slope at every street
Corner inside the prison
Within the torture chamber” (as cited in Mikhail, 1980).
Majida el Roumy, in a speech during Jubran Twaini’s memorial, proved what a great woman she is. This is the women who sang for Kana and for Beirut and who looked in the eyes of everyone and said that God is her only witness and politics was nothing to her in a country who is on the verge of “worshipping” politics and taking it for a God instead of a dirty game.
Layla Anwar raises her voice against the horror surrounding Iraqis in general and Iraqi women in specific. She shouts and argues (Anwar, 2008). She admits the following:
“All you need to know about me is that I am a Middle Easterner, an Arab Woman.
I have no Homeland per Se. I live in Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, Syria and Egypt Simultaneously … All the rest is icing on the cake” (Anwar, 2008).
Those are the Arab women. This is their real image. I am not saying this because I am woman who happens to be an Arab. I am saying this because I am so proud of who I am, proud of my name and of my origin, of my gender and my voice, of the women I know and those I do not know but understand that they have the courage to fly high without losing their innocence and their compassion for others. Being who I am is not a curse. On
the contrary, it is one of the most beautiful pieces of good fortune, of blessings. My job is not to wage a war against men. “I am fit for high positions, by God … And am going my way with pride” as Walladah bint al-Mustakfi says (Mikhail, 1980).
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